Binary option kuala lumpur

Binary option kuala lumpur

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Erna Laere, Anna Pick Kiong Ling, Ying Pei Wong, Rhun Yian Koh, Mohd Azmi Mohd Lila, Sobri Hussein, " Plant-Based Vaccines: Production and Challenges ", Journal of Botanyvol. Plant-based vaccine technologies involve the integration of the desired genes encoding the antigen protein for specific disease into the genome of plant tissues by various methods, binary option kuala lumpur.

Agrobacterium -mediated gene transfer and transformation via genetically modified plant virus are the common methods that have been used to produce effective vaccines. Nevertheless, binary option kuala lumpur, with the advancement of science and technology, new approaches have been developed to increase the efficiency of former methods such as biolistic, electroporation, agroinfiltration, sonication, and polyethylene glycol treatment. Even though plant-based vaccines provide many benefits to the vaccine industry, there are still challenges that limit the rate of successful production of these third-generation vaccines.

Even with all the limitations, continuous efforts are still ongoing in order to produce efficient vaccine for many human and animals related diseases owing to its great potentials, binary option kuala lumpur. This paper reviews the existing conventional methods as well as the development efforts by researchers in order to improve the production binary option kuala lumpur plant-based vaccines.

Several challenges encountered during and after the production process were also discussed. Vaccines help in stimulating the antibodies production in human and animals and provide immune protection against several diseases [ 1 ].

However, the unavailability of vaccines for the treatment of fatal diseases has caused problems and driven global attention towards production of safer, easier, and more effective vaccines. Generally, there are three types of vaccine production methods, namely, the egg-based vaccines, cell-based vaccines, and vaccines produced using investigational-manufacturing systems.

The most common example of egg-based vaccine is the influenza vaccine produced in 9-today-old embryonated eggs [ 2binary option kuala lumpur, 3 ]. This conventional method has been applied for over 60 years and it involves the injection of virus particles into the eggs and further incubation for several days to allow the replication of virus particles.

In order to produce a vaccine, the antigen isolated from the purification process of the eggs containing vaccine virus particle would binary option kuala lumpur additional procedures, binary option kuala lumpur. However, the selection of most appropriate influenza virus strains to be replicated for vaccine production remains to be the main limitation in this method as not all strains of influenza virus are able to replicate in embryonated eggs, hence affecting the amount of vaccine produced in the eggs [ 2 ].

Apart from that, a large number of eggs are required to produce a vaccine while the regulatory approval for vaccines produced from egg-based method is rather time-consuming [ 24 ]. Meanwhile, binary option kuala lumpur, the main limitation in producing the cell-based vaccines would be the requirement of high-priced fermentation facilities.

With various limitations in the former two conventional methods, binary option kuala lumpur, particularly in relation to time, the expensive manufacturing process due to the need of cold storage for the temperature-sensitive vaccines [ 5 ], and the risk of unwanted immune response and developing the disease, investigational-manufacturing systems, which utilize the biological systems such as plant, insect cells, or bacteria culture to manufacture vaccines have recently gained the attention of researchers.

Among these, binary option kuala lumpur vaccine production has received particular attention due to the numerous advantages it may offer.

The attempt to produce vaccines in plants was made by Hiatt and coworkers binary option kuala lumpur [ 6 ].

The concept of utilizing transgenic plants to produce and deliver subunit vaccines was introduced by Dr. Arntzen and his colleagues and proved that this concept can overwhelm the limitations in traditional vaccine production [ 6 ]. The first subunit vaccine was produced by them in tobacco plants by expressing surface protein antigen of Streptococcus mutants. They also initiated the production of hepatitis B and heat-labile toxin B subunit in potato tubers as well as potato plants, binary option kuala lumpur.

Init was proven, for the first time, by National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases NIAID that significant immunogenicity can be induced safely by an edible vaccine [ 6 ], utilizing the concept of plants as bioreactor. Due to the fact that the plant-based vaccine is easy to handle as it does not require complicated storage and its production is cost-effective binary option kuala lumpur easy to scale up for large production, this method may provide a cheaper alternative for vaccine production [ 57 — 10 ].

Moreover, plant-based edible vaccines produced through this method are able to provide a needleless, convenient, and easy route of administration [ 9 — 11 ]. Among the plants that have been commonly used as bioreactor are tobacco, potato, tomato, corn, and rice.

To date, binary option kuala lumpur, there are many transgenic plants that have been used to produce four different types of vaccines: bacterial vaccines, viral vaccines, parasite vaccines, and immunocontraceptive vaccines [ 9 ].

There are several plant-based vaccines that have been produced, with some of them being currently at the clinical trial phase. Among them, the most common types of vaccines are against virus and bacteria that cause fatal illness in human and animals and usually Nicotiana plants are utilized as the bioreactor.

However, to date, only two products have been licenced: a plant made scFV mAB used in the production of a recombinant HBV vaccine in Cuba and b Newcastle disease virus NDV vaccine for poultry approved by the US Department of Agriculture USDA [ 12 ].

There is no plant-based vaccine that has received the license from US Food and Drug Administration FDA. This is due to the fact that plant-based vaccines are classified under the genetically modified crop category [ 13 ]. In view of this exciting yet challenging research, the first part of this paper focuses on the conventional and refined expression technologies for improved plant-based vaccines binary option kuala lumpur, while the latter part discusses challenges encountered during and after the production process.

Plant-based vaccine production mainly involves the integration of transgene into the plant cells. The target sequence of the selected antigen is integrated with the vector before being transferred into the expression system.

The transgene can then be expressed in the plants either through a stable transformation system or through transient transformation system, depending on the location where the transgene has been inserted in the cells. Stable transformation system can be achieved through nuclear or plastid integration [ 14 ].

Biolistic and genetically modified Agrobacterium strain can lead to the formation of stable transfection. However, as Agrobacterium binary option kuala lumpur is not infecting many plant species naturally, it limits the application of Agrobacterium strain for stable transformation of the desired gene.

Generally, stably transgenic plant cells produce a lower amount of subunit antigen, in the range of 0. On the other hand, transient transformation system involves the production of desired protein or antigen soon after the heterologous gene resides transiently in the host cells [ 1416 ]. The transgene is not incorporated into the genome of the plant cells. In this plant expression system, the regeneration of whole plant is not required and the frequency of its occurrence is higher.

These characteristics overcome the pitfalls related to the stable integration [ 14 ], binary option kuala lumpur. Two most commonly used methods that would achieve transient expression of a desired protein in plants are the Agrobacterium -mediated transformation of genetically modified plant virus and particle bombardment [ 14 ].

As mentioned earlier, there are several methods that can be used to produce plant-based vaccines. Basically, these methods are divided into two categories, which are direct and indirect gene delivery [ 1617 ]. The direct gene delivery method simply means the direct introduction of DNA or RNA into the plant cells [ 12 ].

In this section, the most common direct gene delivery approach, biolistic method, will be further discussed. Biolistic method is a vector-independent method and it is also known as gene gun or microprojectile bombardment method [ 12 ]. This is an alternative method of gene transfer for nuclear transformation if Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is not feasible [ 61819 ].

It involves the use of gold or tungsten as microcarrier to coat the DNA [ 620 ]. The coated DNA will then be placed on top of macrocarrier, inserted into gene gun, and subjected to high pressure of helium gas [ 620 ].

Due to the high pressure, binary option kuala lumpur coated DNA will travel at a high speed within a vacuum and penetrate into the cells of targeted plant [ 21 ]. The advantages of this method are that it forms a stable integration of the transgene into the plant genome and it can be applied to transfer foreign DNA into a variety of types of plant host species as well as various cell types [ 14 ], binary option kuala lumpur. There is no vector requirement for this method and it will aid in cotransformation [ 14 ].

However, it requires a costly particle gun device, it is labour intensive, and it can cause severe damage to the plant tissues [ 1620 ]. Biolistic method can be used to achieve two types of antigen expression in the transgenic plants: nuclear and chloroplast transformation.

Nuclear transformation is done by integrating the desired gene into the nucleus of the plant cells via nonhomologous recombination [ 2223 ]. The transgene might be inserted at the same locus or different loci to create the stable transgenic plants [ 22 ].

Even though the plants can inherit the transgene to the offspring, nuclear transgenic plants show a low expression level of antigens which lead to the requirement of a huge quantity of plant material to produce the binary option kuala lumpur dose of administration and it might cause pleiotropic and position effects due to the random integration of the transgene [ 23 — 25 ].

A fascinating alternative to nuclear transformation with the aim to increase the yield of recombinant protein production from a single transformation step is known as chloroplast transformation [ 6binary option kuala lumpur, 1726 ]. The formation of chloroplast transgenic plants involves the use of biolistic process, which will deliver the desired DNA into chloroplasts, followed by the integration of gene of interest into the chloroplast genome from plastid transformation vector at flanking sequence via homologous recombination [ 1826 ].

The advantages of chloroplast transformation compared to the nuclear transformation are the ability to eliminate gene silencing effect, a rapid and low cost production due to its high copy number in a plant cell, its potential to express multiple genes in plastids and less technical work, natural transgene containment, and ensuring a site-specific insertion of the transgene in the chloroplast genome [ 617252728 ].

However, as no glycosylation process happens in plastids, thus this method is not an option for production of functional heterologous proteins that require a complex posttranslational modification. Among nuclear and chloroplast transformation, most of the recently reported plant-based vaccines are produced through chloroplast transformation. Some examples of vaccines that were derived from chloroplast to fight against bacterial diseases are cholera, Lyme disease, anthrax, tetanus, and plague, while vaccines to fight against viral diseases are rotavirus and canine parvovirus CPV [ 26 ].

Production of most of these vaccines utilized tobacco as the model plant. The cholera toxin B subunit, Bacillus anthracis protective antigen, and tetanus toxin Fragment C genes were all expressed utilizing the transgenic tobacco model [ 30 — 32 ].

Similarly, a protective peptide, namely, 2L21, which prevents dogs from CPV infection, was also successfully expressed in the tobacco model [ 33 ]. Some plant derived vaccines were also further tested in animal models to validate their efficacy. For instance, results showed that mice immunized with the chloroplast-derived anthrax vaccine survived through the anthrax toxin challenge [ 34 ] while mucosal immunisation of mice with the chloroplast-derived tetanus vaccine increased the antibodies against tetanus in the body, indicating the safe use of the vaccine applied through nasal or oral route [ 32 ].

Apart from tobacco model, two plant-based vaccines against dengue and rabies viruses have been reported to be produced in Lactuca sativa lettuce and Zea maysrespectively, through biolistic method. Results showed that L. sativa expressed polyprotein of the antigen in different forms as monomers, heterodimers, or multimers in Western blot.

The plant grew normally and binary option kuala lumpur transgenes were inherited by the next progeny without any segregation. In another example, the rabies vaccine was produced in Zea mays whereby the embryogenic callus was first transformed with the pregenerated construct with a constitutive promoter from cauliflower mosaic virus CaMV by biolistics, and the regenerated plants were grown in a greenhouse [ 36 ]. Then, the transgenic Zea mays expressing the rabies virus glycoprotein was fed to mice binary option kuala lumpur oral route.

Results showed that the treatment protected the animals from the rabies virus challenge, conferring the beneficial effect of the plant-based vaccine as a potent oral immunogen. Based on the current evidences, antigen expression through chloroplast transformation confers several benefits.

First of all, the introduced genes were inherited stably in subsequent generations ensuring the continuous supply of the source [ 30 ]. Furthermore, high yield of antigens in the chloroplasts would lessen the amount of plant material required for vaccination, and this would make the encapsulation of freeze-dried material or pill formation easier [ 33 ]. Even though production of plant-based vaccine from chloroplast transformation had been identified as an alternative method to overcome the weakness in nuclear transformation, binary option kuala lumpur, binary option kuala lumpur studies need to be carried out.

This is due to the fact that chloroplast transformation method is yet to be applied on many plant species apart from tobacco plant. In addition, it is difficult to create plants that will have uniformly transformed plastid homoplasmic. Due to the later limitation, generation of transplastomic plants that are genetically stable is hindered. Despite using direct gene delivery method, indirect gene delivery methods show more significant efficacy in vaccines production as indirect gene delivery involves the utilization of plant bacteria, particularly the Agrobacterium species and plant viruses, which naturally infect the plant cells and are able to integrate the gene of interest into plant genome [ 16 ].

Agrobacterium is a Gram-negative soil pathogenic bacterium that naturally will infect the plants and transfer their genes T-DNA to the nucleus of the plant cells [ 17binary option kuala lumpur, 19 ], binary option kuala lumpur.

Two strains of Agrobacterium species that have been commonly used as a biological vector are Agrobacterium tumefaciens A. tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes A. The main difference between these two species is the plasmid that they carry. tumefaciens carries tumour-inducing plasmid Ti-plasmidwhile A. rhizogenes carries root-inducing plasmid Ri-plasmid [ 1837 ].

Binary option kuala lumpur, A. tumefaciens is the most preferred strain by researchers for stable expression of the desired protein. In the Ti-plasmid, there are genes encoding for plant hormones such as auxin and cytokinin synthesis, which will induce tumour tissue in plants. However, for vaccine production, these genes will be deleted to form disarmed Ti-plasmid and heterologous gene is inserted forming a recombinant plasmid vector [ 37 ].

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